Back to School Belly Pain

Supporting Children’s Digestive Health Through an Integrative Lens

Exploring the connection between the gut, brain, emotions, and digestive harmony.

It’s the first week of school. The backpack is ready, outfits are picked out, and the alarm clock is set. And suddenly, a child who was perfectly healthy all summer wakes up with a stomachache. Maybe they complain of nausea before school, have less appetite at breakfast, develop constipation, or need to use the bathroom more frequently. Parents may wonder: Is something wrong with their stomach? Are they trying to avoid school?  

The answer is often more complex.  

As children head back to school with new schedules, changing sleep routines, different foods, and the emotional ups and downs of a new school year, it's not uncommon for "back-to-school belly pain" or other digestive symptoms to emerge. Abdominal pain and digestive discomfort are among the most common concerns in pediatrics, particularly during times of transition. For some children, these changes are temporary, arising acutely in response to change and stress. For others, these symptoms may present as chronic digestive conditions, affecting up to 25% of all children and infants worldwide. Symptoms such as abdominal pain, bloating, constipation, diarrhea, or altered bowel habits often reflect the complex interplay between the gastrointestinal tract, the nervous system, and a child’s emotional wellbeing.  

Both Western medicine and Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) offer valuable perspectives for understanding why this happens and how we can support children through it. By bringing together these two perspectives, we can better understand “back to school belly pain”, and how to support them with individualized, integrative care.  

The Modern Understanding: The Gut and Brain are In Constant Conversation 

From a Western biomedical lens, many chronic pediatric digestive complaints are now understood through the framework of “Disorders of Gut-Brain Interaction” (DGBI) (1). Formerly referred to as functional gastrointestinal disorders (FGID), this terminology has evolved due to a better understanding of underlying mechanisms and the relationship between our gastrointestinal system and the central nervous system (the “gut-brain axis”). DGBI includes diagnoses such as: 

• irritable bowel syndrome
• functional constipation
• functional abdominal pain
  

This shift in terminology also represents an important change in how we think about these conditions. Historically, children with diagnoses of functional gastrointestinal disorders like “functional abdominal pain” may have been told or felt like they were being told, “It’s all in your head.” Modern neuroscience now tells us a different story about this kind of pain.  

While the brain plays a central role in processing and amplifying pain, the symptoms are really a result of complex interactions between the gut, nervous system, immune system, microbiome, and psychosocial factors.  Chronic digestive complaints can be especially challenging and frustrating for patients and parents alike as often a western diagnostic evaluation can be “normal” and yet kids continue to suffer real symptoms.  

The Gut-Brain Axis: A Two-Way Communication System

Over the past few decades, our understanding of chronic pain and digestion has evolved considerably. Rather than viewing pain as a simple reflection of tissue injury, we now recognize that pain is a complex, dynamic experience that is more than just nociception (the detection of potentially harmful stimuli). 

Pain is shaped and modulated by factors such as genetics, emotions, past experiences, environment, and nervous system processing (2). The gut-brain axis (GBA) is now recognized as a bidirectional communication network that links the nervous system, the immune system, and the gut microbiome (3). More recently, this relationship has been described as the microbiota-gut-brain axis, reflecting an explosion in our understanding of the magnitude, complexity, role, and interactions of the microbial populations (herbal targets!) hosted within the lumen of the GI tract.

Impaired gut-brain communication is a hallmark of DGBI. Children may develop symptoms such as:

• increased sensitivity to normal digestive sensations
• changes in intestinal motility
• abdominal pain and cramping
• constipation or diarrhea
• nausea or bloating

Pain can also be generated by visceral hypersensitivity, where the nerves in the gut become oversensitive and respond more strongly to normal sensations. This does not mean symptoms are imagined or that pain is caused only by “stress”.  Rather, visceral hypersensitivity reflects a change in how information is processed between the digestive system and the nervous system. Stress, illness, ongoing digestive symptoms, and adverse childhood experiences, such as food or housing insecurity, can all influence this communication pathway and increase vulnerability to chronic symptoms.

Where Western Medicine and Chinese Medicine Meet

As our understanding of the gut-brain axis has evolved, Western medicine has increasingly embraced a more integrative view of digestive health, one that recognizes the complex interplay between the nervous system, immune system, microbiome, emotions, stress, and the gastrointestinal tract. For practitioners of Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), this interconnected perspective echoes what Chinese medicine has observed for thousands of years.

Although TCM describes the body through a different language and theoretical framework, it has long recognized that digestion, emotions, lifestyle, and environmental influences are inseparable. Rather than competing explanations, these two lenses can enrich one another, offering a more complete understanding of why children develop digestive complaints and how we can best support them.

A TCM Perspective: The Spleen, Stomach, and Liver Connection

Traditional Chinese Medicine offers another lens for understanding why children’s digestive symptoms often emerge during times of transition, including the return to school. In Traditional Chinese Medicine, the Spleen and Stomach are the foundation of postnatal life. Together, they transform food and drink into Qi and Blood, providing the nourishment needed for growth, development, learning, immune function, and overall vitality. Childhood is considered a period in which the Spleen is vulnerable and still developing, making children especially susceptible to digestive disturbances during times of dietary indiscretion, irregular routines, illness, or emotional stress.

Children may wake earlier, eat at different times, consume more processed or convenience foods, experience less downtime, and encounter new academic or social pressures with a return to school. From a TCM perspective, these changes can challenge the harmonious function of the Spleen and Stomach, leading to symptoms such as abdominal pain, nausea, bloating, changes in appetite, constipation, or diarrhea.

The Spleen and Stomach are closely connected with the Liver, which is responsible for the smooth flow of Qi throughout the body. The Liver is particularly sensitive to emotional stress, frustration, anxiety, and feelings of being overwhelmed. When the flow of Liver Qi becomes disrupted, it can interfere with the function of the Spleen and Stomach (“Liver overacting on the Spleen”).

This relationship provides us with a TCM framework for understanding why a child may experience:

• stomachaches before school
• diarrhea during periods of anxiety
• worsening digestive symptoms during stressful academic or social periods

Although many children experience only a transient increase in gastrointestinal symptoms during periods of stress or transition, others have underlying Disorders of Gut-Brain Interaction (DGBI) that become more apparent during these vulnerable times. Understanding these conditions through both biomedical and TCM frameworks can help clinicians distinguish temporary stress-related symptoms from more persistent patterns of digestive dysfunction while guiding individualized approaches to assessment and treatment. 

Integrating Western Diagnosis and TCM Patterns: Common Clinical Presentations

An integrative approach recognizes that Western diagnosis and TCM patterns can provide complementary information. A Western diagnosis helps identify the children’s symptom pattern, rule out concerning medical conditions and guide evidence-based treatment options. TCM pattern differentiation allows us to have an individualized framework for understanding contributing factors such as constitution, emotional influences, and patterns of imbalance. The following are four common presentations of “back to school belly pain” and how they may be understood through both perspectives:

1: The Anxious Child: Stress Related Abdominal Pain and Diarrhea

Western perspective: Irritable Bowel Syndrome with Diarrhea (IBS-D)

For some children, emotional stress shows up quickly as digestive complaints. From a Western perspective, these symptoms may fall under Irritable Bowel Syndrome with diarrhea. In children, IBS is characterized by recurrent abdominal pain associated with changes in bowel habits.

IBS is considered a Disorder of Gut-Brain Interaction (DGBI) and is diagnosed clinically based on symptom patterns, medical history, and physical examination rather than through a specific laboratory test or structural abnormality. According to Rome IV pediatric criteria, a child must have abdominal pain at least four days per month associated with one or more of the following:

• pain related to defecation
• changes in stool frequency
• changes in stool form (appearance)

Symptoms must be fulfilled for at least 2 months before diagnosis. Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) can now be divided into subtypes reflecting the predominant stool pattern:

• IBS with constipation
• IBS with diarrhea
• IBS with constipation and diarrhea
• Unspecified IBS

Treatment focuses on restoring healthy communication between the gut and nervous system through education, lifestyle support, dietary approaches, psychological therapies (CBT), gut-directed hypnotherapy, neuromodulation approaches, and possibly medications.

TCM Perspective: Liver Qi Stagnation with Spleen Qi Deficiency (Gan Yu Pi Xu)

This pattern is triggered by emotional stress, anger, frustration, or anxiety that instantly sparks bowel urgency, similar to a chronic “fight-or-flight” response. Clinical indications include abdominal pain that leads straight to diarrhea, and/or cramping, with the child experiencing relief after passing stool. There could be frequent sighing, mood swings, and a wiry pulse.

A commonly used formula for stress-induced IBS is Tong Xie Yao Feng. This gentle formula tonifies the Spleen, reduces the cramping and intestinal “Wind” (feng), and softens the Liver to reduce stress-related GI changes.

It is possible that Damp-Heat will combine with this pattern causing urgent, explosive, or burning diarrhea that is sticky, foul-smelling, yellow in color, and sometimes with the appearance of mucus in the stool. Bowel movements often will feel incomplete with lingering tenesmus. The child’s tongue will be red with a yellow coating, and the pulse will be rapid and slippery. Heat and Damp clearing herbs such as Huang Lian or Huang Qin can be added to Tong Xie Yao Feng when this presents.

Another classic formula for diarrhea-type IBS is Jia Wei Xiao Yao San, which harmonizes the Liver and Spleen to reduce diarrhea and GI pain when strong emotional symptoms are present, such as severe anxiety and irritability, or when Heat signs are present, such as a loud voice, red face, preference for cold drinks, and rapid, wiry pulse.

Note: In clinical practice, Chinese herbal formulas are selected based on the child’s individual presentation, including symptoms, constitution, tongue, pulse, and overall pattern. The formulas discussed are examples of commonly used approaches rather than one-size-fits-all treatments.

2: The Sensitive Digestive System: Chronic Digestive Vulnerability

Western Perspective: Chronic abdominal pain with bloating and fatigue

Some children seem to have a sensitive stomach from an early age. Children with chronic abdominal discomfort, bloating, loose stools, low appetite, or fatigue may have a history of:

• recurrent illnesses or infections
• irregular eating patterns
• high academic or athletic demands
• chronic stress
• limited recovery time between activities

From a Western perspective, these symptoms may overlap with disorders of gut-brain interaction including functional dyspepsia, functional abdominal pain, or other conditions involving altered gut motility and sensitivity.

TCM Perspective: Spleen and Stomach Qi Deficiency (Pi Wei Qi Xu)

This pattern is linked to “overwork” and often is seen in children who are high-achieving in academics and competitive sports, combined with improper diet, or having a history of weak constitution. Clinical signs for this pattern include loose stools immediately after eating, consistently low appetite, fatigue and bloating. The child likely will present with a pale tongue with scalloped sides and a weak pulse.

In this pattern, the tonifying formula of Shen Ling Bai Zhu San will help rebuild the weak digestive system, leach excess fluid from the GI tract, and boost energy by tonifying the Spleen. Children will often experience more overall energy in their day and notice more firm, less watery stools.

3. When the Bowels Slow Down: Constipation

Western perspective: Irritable Bowel Syndrome with Constipation (IBS-C)

Children may develop constipation during changes in routine, unfamiliar school bathrooms, and reduced water intake. In some children, constipation may also occur as part of IBS with constipation (IBS-C) where abdominal pain is closely connected with changes in bowel function. Treatment approaches include behavioral support (school accommodations, etc.), adequate fiber and hydration, bowel routines, medications such as osmotic laxatives when needed, and therapies that address the gut-brain connection.

TCM Perspective: Intestinal Dryness and Heat (Chang Re Jin Kui)

This is the most common pattern found in patients who suffer constipation-type IBS. Excess, internal Heat, often generated by stress and Qi stagnation, dries out the stool within the large intestine, leaving stools hard, dry and difficult to pass. Stools may appear as hard pebbles, and there is often a burning sensation while defecating. Patients often report a dry mouth while only wanting small sips of water, and “dragon breath” or foul-smelling breath that does not clear with tooth brushing may be noticed. Children with this pattern are often irritable and present with a red tongue with a yellow coating.

An excellent and gentle formula for this pattern is Ma Zi Ren Wan, which uses hemp seeds to gently moisten the intestines, while clearing Heat, and promoting motility in the large intestine to move stools through the bowels without causing cramping.

4. The Child Who Overdid It: Food Stagnation and Digestive Overload

Western Perspective: Acute Digestive Upset

Sometimes back-to-school belly pain is not caused by chronic digestive vulnerability or stress, but simply by a digestive system that has been overwhelmed. Children may experience acute symptoms after overeating, irregular meals, sudden dietary changes, or eating large amounts of ultra-processed foods.

TCM Perspective: Food Stagnation (Ji Shi)

Children often suffer from stagnation of food in the stomach and intestines because they have relatively immature digestive systems coupled with a taste for sugary foods and a propensity to overeat. These factors can cause food to sit in the GI system without properly moving through the intestines until finally reaching a point of explosive purging.

Food stagnation signs are often acute and come on suddenly and inconsistently. They can include constipation or diarrhea, and combine with bloating, visible abdominal distention that is more painful with touch or pressure, sour-smelling bad breath, low appetite or complete aversion to food, a wiry pulse, and a thick, greasy tongue coating.

Bao He Wan, which forms the basis of many other formulas, is the most effective and gentle choice for either or both constipation/diarrhea type IBS due to food stagnation. This formula includes digestive enzymes from herbs like hawthorn fruit (Shan Zha) and sprouted barley (Mai Ya) to break down food buildup, while allowing the child’s natural motility to complete the process.

An Integrative Approach: Additional Ways to Support the Gut, Brain, and Digestive System

Children with digestive complaints benefit most from an integrative approach that addresses the whole child. The goal is not just symptom relief, but to help children develop confidence and resilience, regulate their nervous systems, and restore digestive balance. The following approaches may be incorporated into an individualized care plan:

Supporting the Gut Brain Connection:

One of the most important parts of treating pediatric digestive complaints is helping children understand the connection between their emotions, nervous system, and digestive system.

Depending on the age and developmental stage of the child, talking about and normalizing the relationship between our emotions and our digestive system can be helpful and empowering for children to understand the connection. Be curious with your patient or child: “Did you know your brain and belly talk to each other? Guess how often? 100% of the time! Have you ever had butterflies in your stomach when you have had to get up in front of your class and make a speech or presentation? Yep, that’s your brain telling your stomach that you're feeling nervous, and that is super normal!”

These conversations can help shift a child’s thinking away from believing that something is “wrong” and “dangerous” and help a child start to understand that their symptoms are real but also influenced by the normal communication between the brain and the gut.

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy:

Cognitive behavior therapy aims to assist patients in understanding the connection between thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. Components of CBT include learning both cognitive (e.g., identifying and altering unhelpful thoughts related to pain symptoms) and behavioral strategies (e.g., relaxation techniques, improving healthy habits). Importantly, CBT does not suggest that symptoms are “psychological” or imagined. Instead, it recognizes that the brain and nervous system play an important role in how physical sensations are processed and experienced.

Gut-Directed Hypnotherapy:

Hypnosis, or gut-directed hypnotherapy, is an evidence-based treatment that has a large body of evidence showing efficacy for children with DGBI (5). Hypnotherapy is defined as “A spontaneously occurring or induced alternative state of awareness (with or without relaxation, which may or may not be evident) in which an individual develops a focused concentration on some idea or image with the expressed purpose of maximizing potential, creating a CHANGE, and/or reducing or resolving some problem. (6)” Children are great candidates for gut-directed hypnotherapy given their active imaginations and neuroplastic brains. Studies in children with IBS showed that hypnotherapy outperformed standard medical treatment, and patients who learned hypnotherapy had sustained improvement years later.

Chinese Herbal Medicine and Acupuncture/Acupressure:

Chinese herbal medicine and acupuncture/pressure offer an individualized approach based on pattern differentiation. Rather than treating all abdominal pain or constipation the same way, TCM considers:

• The child’s underlying constitution
• Digestive strength
• Emotional patterns
• Stool characteristics
• Tongue and pulse findings
• Presence of Heat, Dampness, Qi deficiency, or Qi stagnation

Food as Medicine: Nourishing the Middle Jiao

Diet plays an important role in managing pediatric abdominal pain and Disorders of Gut-Brain Interaction (DGBI), but dietary interventions should be approached cautiously in children. While identifying individual food triggers and encouraging regular, balanced meals can improve symptoms; overly restrictive diets may compromise growth, nutritional status, and normal development. Restrictive eating can also increase the risk of food-related anxiety and disordered eating behaviors, particularly in adolescents. Whenever possible, dietary changes should be individualized, nutritionally adequate, and focused on supporting both digestive health and healthy growth rather than unnecessary food elimination.

In general, children may benefit from:

Supporting the Spleen:

• Warm, cooked foods  
• Oatmeal with cinnamon and applesauce (can add a small amount of Job’s Tears / Coix Seed (Yi Yi Ren) as well to help with clearing Damp)
• Squash or sweet potato (soups or roasted)
• Soups and stews

Supporting Movement and Easing Food Stagnation:

• Sip fresh sliced organic ginger tea with honey
• Add a small amount of tangerine peel/Chen Pi mixed into soups/stews
• Snack on fresh radishes or add sliced, raw red radishes or daikon to dishes. For an extra gut-friendly boost, try naturally lacto-fermented radishes, which provide fiber along with beneficial probiotics.

Moistening the Bowels:

• Walnuts
• Black sesame (sprinkle on oatmeal)
• Pine nuts
• Asian pear (steamed or baked with added cinnamon)

Note: May need to use nuts and seeds in small amounts, or grind and sprinkle, and incorporate them as a paste.

Hands-On and Home-Based Therapies:

Pediatric Tuina and Abdominal Massage:

Pediatric Tuina is a specialized form of massage that focuses on supporting the organs and the flow of vital force, or Qi, through the body. Parents can be taught Qi Nei Zang techniques, which are Tuina massages specifically for the abdomen. These simple and effective techniques promote motility, reduce abdominal cramping, ease pelvic pain, and calm the mind/Shen through gentle, mindful touch.

Abdominal massage is most comfortably performed with an approach that considers touch more as a form of “listening” than “doing.” Children who feel ticklish with belly touch might prefer slightly more pressure. Children often find it most comfortable to receive massage while laying on their back, with a pillow under their knees or legs, to help support the low back.

These techniques can be applied daily and often encourage a bowel movement soon after, especially in younger children. Massage should feel good for the child and should not hurt. Drinking plenty of water during the day helps support the digestive system’s functions.

“I Love U” Abdominal Motility Massage for Bowel Support:

“ILU” or “I Love U” massage is a favorite way to remember three (3) massage strokes that help the belly by following the natural pathway and flow of the large intestine. This technique may be performed directly over skin with a little oil or lotion and also can be done over loose-fitting clothing. Older children can be taught this technique for regular self-care. 

1. Form the letter “I” by placing a soft hand just under the left ribcage and using gentle pressure to stroke downwards towards the left hipbone. Repeat 10 times. 
2. Form a sideways letter “L” by placing hands just under the right ribcage and stroke gently underneath the rib cage to the left side, then down to the left hipbone. Repeat 10 times. 
3. Form an upside-down letter “U” by starting at the right hip bone, stroke upwards to the right ribcage, then underneath the ribcage to the left side, then down to the left hip bone. Repeat 10 times.

Belly Circles (Small Intestine support)

Massage focused around the center of the belly can reduce discomfort by helping the stomach empty and move food through the small intestines. This technique can be performed directly over dry or lightly oiled skin, or over loose-fitting clothing.

1. Gently place the palm of a hand or a few flattened fingers about 2 inches from the belly button. 
2. Using smaller, circular motions, trace a clockwise circle around the belly button.   
3. Expand the size of the clockwise, circular motion until hands are about 4 inches from the belly button. 
4. Repeat 10 times or more. Best to perform at least 30 minutes after eating. OK to do daily.

Cupping Therapy

Cupping therapy is an ancient technique that utilizes specialized suction cups applied to the surface of the skin which gently mobilize upwards the muscle and fascia, gently stimulate nerves, improve blood flow, and support organ function.

Studies with children have demonstrated that cupping therapy can significantly improve functional constipation and other issues with elimination by promoting smooth muscle contraction to move gas and stool through the bowels.

About 10 minutes of cupping therapy every other day has been shown to be more effective for constipation than taking an osmotic laxative, such as Miralax. Abdominal cupping has been shown to provide both immediate benefit and long-term improvement in digestive and elimination functions (7).

While cupping is safe and effective, it should be performed by a licensed clinician or a parent who receives training from a child’s provider. Reusable plastic cupping sets with hand suction pumps can be found for $20-40 online and last for years with proper cleaning and care.

Castor Oil Abdominal Packs

Castor oil is a traditional remedy for constipation and can be taken orally or used topically over the abdomen. While there is more evidence for oral consumption of castor oil for bowel support, topical applications can be gentler and more comfortable for children. Oral consumption should be used sparingly, while topical use can be used frequently.  

Castor oil is derived from the castor bean (Bi Ma Zi). It is rich in a fatty acid called ricinoleic acid, which binds to muscle receptors in the intestinal walls and creates mild contractions to move stool through the bowels. Castor oil, when taken internally, lubricates intestinal walls to moisten and soften hardened, dry stools. Castor oil can stimulate a bowel movement within around 2-4 hours if taken internally, or 12+ hours if used topically. The highest quality castor oil is organic, cold-pressed, and packaged in dark glass bottles.

1. Soak a piece of cotton or wool flannel in pure castor oil until very moist, but not dripping wet.
2. Place oiled cloth directly over the stomach or lower abdomen.
3. Cover the cloth with a plastic wrap and apply a heating pad or hot water bottle on top for 30-60 minutes.

Bath Soaks with Epsom Salts

Epsom salt is another traditional remedy used for constipation. There is more research on oral consumption, though soaking in an Epsom salt bath can be a more gentle and comfortable method for children.

Epsom salt is composed of magnesium sulfate which, when taken internally, acts as a powerful osmotic to pull water into the bowel to soften and bulk stool and facilitate elimination. When used as a soaking agent in a warm bath, Epsom salt is a safe and relaxing way to support a child with constipation or other belly discomfort.

1. Pour 1-2 cups of Epsom salt into warm, running bath water.
2. Relax in the tub for 15-20 minutes, allowing the warm water to relax the body.
3. Shower or rinse with clean, warm water afterward.
4. Caution if open wounds, burns, or skin infections are present.

Supporting the Whole Child: An Integrative Approach to Digestive Health

Back-to-school belly pain is a reminder that children’s digestive systems do not operate separately from their emotional lives, nervous systems, and daily environments. A stomachache before school is not simply “anxiety,” nor is it always a sign of disease. It is often the body’s way of communicating that support is needed. When we listen carefully, digestive symptoms become more than a problem to eliminate; they become important information about what a child needs to restore balance and resilience.

Modern medicine has expanded our understanding of the complex relationship between digestion, the nervous system, immune function, microbiome, and emotional wellbeing. Traditional Chinese Medicine has recognized the interconnected nature of these systems for thousands of years through its understanding of the relationship between the Spleen, Stomach, Liver, Qi, Blood, emotions, constitution, and the environment.

Rather than viewing these perspectives as competing explanations, an integrative approach allows them to inform and enrich one another. Modern medicine offers valuable insights into gastrointestinal physiology, the gut-brain connection, and the evaluation of concerning symptoms. Traditional Chinese Medicine provides a comprehensive framework for understanding patterns of imbalance and supporting the restoration of harmony through individualized approaches such as acupuncture, Chinese herbal medicine, dietary therapy, and lifestyle practices.

Whether through nutrition, nervous system regulation, acupuncture, acupressure, Chinese herbal medicine, pediatric Tuina, or supportive home practices, the goal is to help children reconnect with their bodies, build resilience, and develop a healthy foundation for growth and wellbeing.

References:

1. Drossman D, Tack J. Rome Foundation Clinical Diagnostic Criteria for Disorders of Gut-Brain Interaction, Gastroenterology, 2021; 162, 675-679.
2. Volcheck, M. Central sensitization, chronic pain, and other symptoms: Better understanding, better management. Cleveland Clinic Journal of Medicine Apr 2023, 90 (4) 245-254; DOI: 10.3949/ccjm.90a.22019.
3. Carabotti M, Scirocco A, Maselli MA, Severi C. The gut-brain axis: interactions between enteric microbiota, central and enteric nervous systems. Ann Gastroenterol. 2015 Apr-Jun;28(2):203-209. Erratum in: Ann Gastroenterol. 2016 Apr-Jun;29(2):240.
4. Dz Chen J, Zhu Y, Wang Y. Emerging Noninvasive Neuromodulation Methods for Functional Gastrointestinal Diseases. J Transl Int Med. 2023 Jan 13;10(4):281-285. doi: 10.2478/jtim-2022-0060.
5. Vlieger AM, Assa A, Borrelli O, Broekaert I, Deganello Saccomani M, Dolinsek J, Carpi de JM, Mas E, Miele E, Thomson M, Tzivinikos C, Benninga MA; Gastroenterology Committee of ESPGHAN. Hypnotherapy in Pediatric Gastroenterology. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2023 Jan 1;76(1):9-13.
6. Kohen D.P., Olness K.N. Hypnosis and Hypnotherapy with Children. 4th ed. Routledge Publications, Taylor & Francis; New York, NY, USA: 2011.
7. Shahamat M, Daneshfard B, Najib KS, Dehghani SM, Tafazoli V, Kasalaei A. DRY CUPPING IN CHILDREN WITH FUNCTIONAL CONSTIPATION: A RANDOMIZED OPEN LABEL CLINICAL TRIAL. Afr J Tradit Complement Altern Med. 2016 Jul 3;13(4):22-28. doi: 10.21010/ajtcam.v13i4.4.