The concept of the ‘Superior Man’ or jūnzǐ 君子 is developed and appears often within the I Ching. The “I Ching” or “Yì jīng” (易經), which is translated as “The Book of Changes”, is an ancient Chinese classical text dating from 1000-750 BCE. Originally, it was a Chinese manual of divination or geomancy which evolved into a cosmological and philosophical text after the addition of the Ten Wings (Shí Yì 十翼) commentaries, which are attributed to Confucius (Kǒngzǐ 孔子) along with ideas adopted from Chuang-Tzu (Zhuāngzǐ 莊子 ).
The I Ching is one of the Five Classics (Wǔjīng 五經) that form the traditional canon of Confucius, which along with the Four Books (Sìshū 四書), define and illustrate the core values and beliefs of ancient China. The Five Classics and the Four Books were the basis of the Imperial Examination System (Kējǔ 科舉 ), which was used to select candidates for the state bureaucracy. The goal was a social structure that created a decentralized confederation style of governance provided by an educated elite rather than simply the aristocracy which was maintained through land ownership, heredity, and advantageous marriages. The system was known as Fengjian (Fēngjiàn 封建), ‘demarcation and establishment’, and established a class structure of a ruling class comprised of the Son of Heaven (the Emperor) and the aristocracy, and the lower classes comprised of the common people divided into ‘scholar officials’, ‘peasants’, ‘laborers’, and ‘merchants’. The members of the aristocracy were afforded landholdings, title, and semi-autonomous domains collecting rents from tenant farmers and merchants, while they remained vassals to the emperor and paid taxes or tribute to the central government.
The concept of choosing bureaucrats by merit rather than by birth started as early as the Qin dynasty (221-206 BCE) in Chinese history. The examinations were carefully structured in order to ensure that people of lesser means than candidates born into wealthy, landowning families were given a greater chance to pass the exams and obtain an official degree. It was believed that people of “superior” quality could be found from humble origins, and that their innate potential could be cultivated if given the opportunity. Over time this ideal of scholar officials degenerated into a more of a scholar-gentry since generally only the wealthy found themselves able to avail themselves of the requisite education in the Five Classics and the Four Books. Eventually they became the elite class of imperial China, dominating government administration and local life until the Qing (Manchu) dynasty attempted to reform the system beginning in 1908. In the interim, the history of Chinese dynasties was replete with factionalism, rebellion, war, corruption, and strife, but the Fengjian system remained resilient throughout.
When the Maoists prevailed in the revolution following the Japanese occupation and World War II, the overthrow of the Fengjian semi-feudal system was complete. The significant changes in China's social structure, including land redistribution from landlords to peasants, the promotion of gender equality, and the suppression of traditional customs and religions led to even the concept of a Superior man being viewed as feudal and elitist. Replacing the Fengjian system with a centralized governance structure led by communist ideology, required persecution of intellectuals and the destruction of traditional culture, exemplified by eliminating the "Four Olds": old customs, culture, habits, and ideas.
In fact, many aspects of life in China retained ‘Chinese characteristics’ to bridge the old society with the new. Keeping those attributes that contributed to the sense of Chinese identity, while shifting the societal consciousness into modern life, became part of the challenge facing the Communist Party. Some would say that progress was uneven. One notable initiative that is of particular interest is the reform of healthcare in China, beginning with the ‘Barefoot Doctor’ program and the development of ‘traditional’ Chinese medicine’ (TCM) that aspired to bring basic medical care to all areas of China while building hospitals, medical schools, and engaging with modern scientific medicine. This blending of ancient ideas of health within a modern society has found a prominent foothold in the West, especially in the United States
The Superior Man/Junzi
Essential to understanding TCM are the principles of Yin and Yang. Using a broken line and a solid line to represent Yin and Yang, the I Ching is based on eight symbolic trigrams and sixty-four hexagrams, which are interpreted in terms of the principles of Yin and Yang. The imagery evoked by the hexagrams is archetypical and lends itself to numerous interpretations and applications. It has famously been suggested that the I Ching assesses the randomness of the otherwise seemingly chaotic world and suggests patterns that exemplify the changes that are repeatedly encountered.
Moreover, the I Ching offers advice in confronting the changes implied with the changes. The Image, the Judgement (Decision), and the Commentaries reveal a philosophy of life based not only on the teachings of Confucius, but also Laozi (the legendary author of the Tao Te Ching). Within the 64 hexagrams, the text offers insights into living harmoniously, understanding the universe's principles, and how to conduct one’s choices and affairs in impeccable fashion.
One of the themes developed within the I Ching is that of the jūnzǐ 君子. Two of the most popular translations (and several others) of the I Ching, Wilhelm and Legge, translate junzi as ‘the superior man’. Huang uses the phrase ‘noble person’. Others render it ‘gentleman’, developed person’, and ‘leader’. Jūn 君 means to ‘reign’ or ‘dominate’ and was used to refer to a sovereign, ruler, or noble. Zǐ 子 means ‘child’ or ‘offspring’ and even though Chinese words are generally not gender specific, this meant ‘son’. The same character zǐ 子 also is used to mean ‘respected teacher or master’, e.g., Lǎozǐ 老子 / Laozi (Lao Tzu). (Personally, I think this speaks to masterhood requiring a child-like view or appreciation of reality.) Thus, junzi is understood as the ‘son of nobility’.
Certainly, members of the scholar-gentry were expected to be an example to their community as ‘Confucian gentlemen’ due to their study of the Five Classics and the Four Books. They were expected to transmute their learning by becoming ideal people who cultivated virtue and improved their character. They often retired to landed estates, supported by peasants, farmers, and merchants in their community. Their non-inheriting sons often aspired to pass the imperial exams to ensure an exalted position and maintain the family’s legacy. Over time, merchants and military officers used their accumulated wealth to educate their sons in hopes of entering civil service to advance the family’s social class. To become a junzi was an honorable path that was an aspiration of the educated and that served to inspire others. Likewise, the governance provided by these honorable men was intended to be fair, just, and benevolent.
In any case, the I Ching speaks to the junzi as a person who ‘chooses’ to be or become a person of noble character. The symbols and images of the original text offer guidance on the proper conduct and behavior of the junzi. Although the term was originally used to denote a member of the nobility, the I Ching implies that anyone who embodies this ideal, regardless of social status, acts according to lǐ 禮, i.e., proper conduct, will bring about harmony (hé 和,), which according to the Confucian ideal, should rule the home, society, and the state. A junzi embodies moral superiority by adhering to the ritual code of the tradition, displaying respect and dignity towards others, and striving for virtues such as humility, sincerity, trustworthiness, righteousness, and compassion. The noble person embodies rén 仁, i.e., ‘kindness’, ‘benevolence’, and ‘humanity’. S/he does not compromise their virtue even in poverty; their actions speak louder than their words; and they are loyal, obedient, and knowledgeable. Perhaps, most importantly, superior people choose to discipline themselves and act in accordance with the Dao 道. The actions of junzi are intended to bring out the best in themselves and for society as a whole.
The junzi is contrasted with the xiăo rén 小人, literally a ‘small person’, who is seen as a little, small-minded, villainous, egotistical, or petty person, who does not grasp the value of virtues and seeks only immediate personal gain. The xiao ren does not consider the consequences of his/her actions. When petty people hold power in society, some people will benefit, while most people will suffer, causing societal discord and strife in spite of the actions of noble people. Meritocracy itself was an ideal not often achieved.
The Judgement (Decision) and the Commentaries of the I Ching instruct the person who would be a junzi what behavior to engage in given the circumstances described by the symbolism of the Hexagram and the Image, what actions are to be avoided, and when to disengage and wait for more favorable circumstances to arise. Importantly, the I Ching exhorts a person to choose to aspire to the ideal of a sage ( shèng 聖), while articulating a less demanding ideal of leading a cultured and moral life exemplified by the junzi. In today’s world, while seemingly surrounded by xiao ren, one should choose to be the noblest, superior person. There is peace and harmony found in this choice. The wisdom in this ancient text is intended was to exhort knowledgeable and aware people to align themselves with their True Self or the Sage. Listen to the advice given to the noble person. The entire world will be better for your effort.
References
- Blofeld, John, I Ching The Book of Change, Penguin Putnam Inc., NY, NY (1965).
- Cleary, Thomas (trans.), The Taoist I Ching, Shambala Press, Boston, MA (2012)
- Huang, Alfred (trans.), The Complete I Ching, Inner Traditions International, Rochester, VT (1998).
- Legge, James (trans.), I Ching Book of Changes, University Books, New Hyde Park, NY (1964).
- Olsen, J., “I Ching of a Thousand Doors”, Breaking Waves Enterprises, LLC, https://www.iching.wiki/
- Ou-i, Chih-hsu (Thomas Cleary, trans.), The Buddhist I Ching, Shambala Press, Boston, MA (1987)
- Siu, R.G.H., The Portable Dragon, The Western Man’s Guide to the I Ching, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA (1968).
- Wilhelm, Richard (trans.), The I Ching or Book of Changes, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ (1950).
